BIJLAGE
1
The prevention and elimination of violence
against women
An in-depth research of Dutch policy,
in the light of the obligations flowing from the
Women’s Convention
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
by
Ineke
Boerefijn
Mignon
van der Liet-Senders
Utrecht, August 2000
Introduction to the research project.......
IV
Chapter 1 – Introduction
IV
Chapter 2 – Obligations flowing from
the Women’s Convention. V
General
aspects V
Interpretation
by CEDAW........ VI
Chapter 3 – General policy framework
in the Netherlands............... VIII
Chapter 4 – Domestic violence.....
IX
Sexual
offences - general aspects........ IX
Battering
of women........ IX
Stalking..
X
Rape
by (ex)partners or acquaintances.. X
Sexual
abuse of girls by a family member.........
X
Assessment
of Dutch policy XI
Chapter 5 – Sexual harassment
XII
Workplace.....
XIII
Education.....
XIII
Health
and youth welfare sector..... XIII
General
conclusions of chapter 5..... XIII
Chapter 6 – Trafficking in women and
sexual exploitation XIV
Chapter 7 – Violations of sexual and
reproductive rights........ XV
Chapter 8 – Conclusions and
recommendations........... XVI
Points
of departure of policy... XVIII
A
National Plan of Action... XVIII
Research
and monitoring... XIX
Determining
priorities..... XIX
Complaints
procedures and remedies..... XIX
Preventive
measures..... XIX
Protective
measures..... XIX
Police
and the prosecutor... XX
In
1991 the Netherlands ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all
Forms of Discrimination Against Women (the Women’s Convention). It was
then decided by Parliament to establish a national reporting procedure.
Prior to reporting to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination
Against Women (CEDAW), the Government must report to Parliament. As part
of this requirement, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, which
is responsible for emancipation policy, decided to have regular in-depth
studies on the implementation of the Convention in specific areas. These
studies are also intended to promote and contribute to the public debate
on emancipation issues.
The
study on the Women’s Convention and the prevention and elimination of
violence against women is one of such studies. The present document
contains an English summary of the report.
The research project was commissioned by the Ministry of Social Affairs
and Employment in December 1999, and effectively started in the spring of
2000. It was carried out by a research team consisting of Dr Ineke
Boerefijn and Mignon van der Liet-Senders, LL.M., from the Netherlands
Institute of Human Rights (SIM) and Professor Titia Loenen from the Women’s
Legal Studies Department, both of Utrecht University, in co-operation with
Dr Renée Römkens, Dr Rikki Holtmaat and Dr Yvonne Klerk, under
supervision of Professor Deirdre Curtin, Professor Cees Flinterman and
Professor Titia Loenen. The manuscript was completed on 1 February 2000.
The
research project is an exploratory study into the relationship between the
Women’s Convention and the prevention and elimination of violence
against women in the Netherlands. The central problem was: What
is the significance of the Women’s Convention with regard to the
Netherlands for the prevention and elimination of violence against women?
The three main goals of the research project were:
·
To give insight into the human rights aspects of the
prevention and elimination of violence against women;
·
To concretise the obligations that arise from the Women’s
Convention, both generally and specifically with regard to violence
against women;
·
To determine to what extent Dutch policy on the
prevention and elimination of violence against women ‘stands the test’
as to whether it is fulfilling the obligations under the Women’s
Convention.
The researchers made an analysis of the Women’s
Convention, taking into account literature and Dutch jurisprudence, but
mostly the work of CEDAW itself, its general recommendations and
concluding observations. They analysed Dutch policy, both emancipation
policy in general and specific policy with regard to violence against
women.
The definition of the phrase ‘violence against women’
as elaborated on in the Platform for Action of the Beijing Fourth World
Conference on Women was adhered to. Chapter 1 of the report deals
extensively with CEDAW’s General Recommendation No. 19, and other
relevant global and national instruments concerning violence against women.
Finally, the introductory chapter contains a
stock-taking of the forms of violence against women that can be
distinguished. On the basis of this stock-taking, a division into several
categories was made. Bearing in mind the particular relevance for the
situation in The Netherlands, four topics were selected for further study.
These are domestic violence, sexual harassment, traffic in women and
sexual exploitation, and violations of sexual and reproductive rights.
Chapter 2 deals with relevant issues of a general
nature at the international level, while chapter 3 provides an overview
and analysis of relevant Dutch policy of a general nature. Chapters 4-7
consist of the aforementioned four case studies. The concluding chapter (chapter
8) contains the overall analysis of the findings and provides conclusions
and recommendations.
Chapter 2 serves as a ‘reference tool’ for the
study. The interpretation by CEDAW of the obligations flowing from the
Women’s Convention creates a framework for assessing Dutch policy. The
obligations are included in a chart annexed to the study.
The
point of departure that violence against women constitutes a form of
discrimination is of the greatest importance. As a consequence violence
against women falls within the scope of the Women’s Convention. This
position has been accepted at the global, regional and national levels, as
evidenced by international instruments such as the Declaration on Violence
Against Women. The theoretical foundation has been provided by scholars in
the field of women’s studies. The gender specific character of violence
against women and the ideological and social dominant position of men lead
to the conclusion that violence against women constitutes a form of
discrimination. It is therefore appropriate that combating violence
against women in The Netherlands constitutes part of Dutch emancipation
policy.
The
object and purpose of the Women’s Convention are to eliminate all forms
of discrimination against women. In a study also commissioned by the
Ministry of Social Affairs, the so-called ‘Groenman report’ (1997),
the object and purpose of the Convention have been divided into three
sub-objectives, derived from articles 2, 3 and 5. These are (1) to realise
equality before the law and in public policy; (2) to improve the position
of women; and (3) to combat the dominant gender ideology. In its response
to the ‘Groenman report’, the Netherlands Government supported this
conclusion.
The
obligation to eliminate discrimination of women, including the obligation
to eliminate violence against women, is an obligation of result. The
Convention often uses terms such as ‘to ensure’ and ‘to guarantee’
which are unambiguous as to the result to be achieved. Terms such as
“appropriate measures” which are also used in the Convention do not
allow States to confine themselves to “progressively realising” the
obligations included in the Convention. “Appropriate measures” means
that States parties are required to take the measures that are suitable
for the domestic situation, in that respect there is a margin of
appreciation, which is, however, limited. First, in a number of provisions
the Convention indicates what kind of measures must be taken, for example
legal measures. Second, States parties must take effective measures. This
requirement implies, inter alia,
that continuous monitoring of the effects of the policy chosen is
necessary. Third, the prohibition of discrimination obliges States to be
non-selective in combating violence. Violence against women should at
least receive as much attention as other forms of violence. Fourth, States
parties must respect rights and freedoms of others. Fifth, in its general
recommendations and concluding observations CEDAW specifies ‘appropriate
measures’.
Chapter
2 provides a survey of the relevant general recommendations, in particular
General Recommendation No. 19, and of the concluding observations of CEDAW,
in so far as these deal with (a form of) violence against women. This
survey which has also been included in a chart, has been used as a
framework for the various parts of the study. The chart is included as an
Annex to this summary.
Obligations of a general nature include
the establishment of adequate machinery for the implementation of the
obligations stemming from the Women’s Convention. CEDAW considers it of
the greatest importance that discrimination of women in general, and
violence against women in particular, is made visible. To that end,
systematic and continuous research into the causes, the nature and the
extent of violence against women is necessary, as well as monitoring of
the position of women. A comprehensive approach of the problem is
necessary, which requires co-ordination and guidance from an authoritative
institution. Co-operation with NGOs is regarded as a positive aspect.
CEDAW has pointed at the importance of a National Plan of Action, which
should include comprehensive strategies, set targets and deadlines, and
include benchmarks for monitoring. Such a plan should also contain
information on the (re)allocation of financial resources.
General
Recommendation No. 19 requires States parties to take all necessary
measures, including legal measures. CEDAW has pointed at the need to
ensure effective implementation of legislation and adequate protection by
the law. Victims of violence should be able to seek redress. Complaints
procedures must be easily accessible. Victims of violence must have
effective remedies at their disposal and must be compensated for the
violation and must be rehabilitated. It is a prerequisite that women are
well aware of their human rights. CEDAW has pointed at the need to
increase gender sensitivity and professional training in dealing with
violence against women in various professions, including the police, the
judiciary and health care personnel.
General
Recommendation No. 19 also deals with preventive measures, including
educational campaigns, to change traditional attitudes towards women. The
elimination of gender stereotypes is one of the core obligations of the
Women’s Convention. Among protective measures, this general
recommendation refers to shelter, counselling and support of women who are
victims of violence. Shelters should be easily accessible and adequately
financed. CEDAW has stressed the importance of protection of women, to
ensure that they do not suffer negative consequences as a result of
seeking help or lodging complaints.
Chapter
2 subsequently provides an overview of the obligations concerning the
specific forms of violence that are dealt with in the report: domestic
violence, sexual harassment, traffic in women and sexual exploitation, and
violations of sexual and reproductive rights. This summary cannot deal
with the many aspects elaborated by CEDAW. Only a limited number of its
findings and recommendations will be mentioned here. The complete survey
is included in the chart annexed to this summary.
With
regard to domestic violence, CEDAW has emphasised that a main cause of this
problem is the economically dependent position of women. CEDAW supports
the view that domestic violence, incest and honour killings should be made
a criminal offence. It has stressed the importance of effective remedies.
It has recommended that investigations must take place, also when
complaints are submitted by third parties. Increasing gender sensitivity
and professional training in dealing with violence against women is
especially important to combat domestic violence. Among the protective
measures, CEDAW has observed that there must be adequate shelter and
support, counselling, rehabilitation programmes for offenders as well as
for victims.
In
connection with sexual harassment,
CEDAW has particularly stressed the importance of complaints procedures.
Such procedures must be effective and offer protection. Among the
preventive measures, it has stressed the need for women to be economically
independent. Victims of sexual harassment should not suffer negative
consequences of seeking redress.
In
the field of traffic in women and sexual exploitation, international co-operation
is necessary. CEDAW has recommended that States examine the role of
Internet. States must pay due attention to contemporary forms of this
trafficking and sexual exploitation, such as sex tourism. It has
recommended that traffic in women is made a criminal offence, as well as
exploitation of prostitution. CEDAW has stressed that prostitutes should
not be criminalized; if prostitution is a criminal offence, pimps should
be the persons prosecuted and punished. It has also emphasised that
prostitutes should be equally protected by the law against violence. Among
preventive measures, CEDAW has observed that the eradication of poverty
and decreasing unemployment among women will contribute to the elimination
of this type of violence. Protective measures mentioned include the
creation of new opportunities for women in the labour market, the
protection of migrant women against exploitation, protection of
prostitutes’ health and the rehabilitation of victims of trafficking and
exploitation.
In
addressing violations of sexual and reproductive rights, CEDAW has emphasised
the free choice of a woman concerning family planning. When seeking
abortion or sterilisation, the consent of her husband should not be a
prerequisite. CEDAW has paid much attention to the problem of female
genital mutilation (FGM) and teenage pregnancies. With regard to FGM,
CEDAW has made it clear that this practice cannot be tolerated in any form,
and it has recommended that it be made a criminal offence. With regard to
legislation on abortion, CEDAW has stated that such legislation must not
be too restrictive and that women who have had an abortion, should not be
punished. Among the preventive measures, CEDAW has mentioned measures to
prevent coercion, measures to prevent women from seeking unsafe measures
to control their fertility (such as illegal and unsafe abortions),
accessibility of contraceptives, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and
the elimination of traditional practices by educational and legal measures.
Among the protective measures, it has mentioned that access to safe
abortion should exist. Further, it has observed that those who carry out
FGM should be provided with alternative means of employment.
Chapter
2 concludes that the Women’s Convention provides many useful tools to
combat violence against women.
This chapter gives an overview of Dutch policy with
regard to emancipation in general, and violence against women in
particular. The researchers have studied policy documents, laws,
parliamentary documents, and literature. The chapter only deals with the
general policy framework, while specific forms of violence against women
are dealt with in chapters 4-7. The analysis aimed at determining the
coherence of policy and indicating possible gaps.
Emancipation documents were also looked at (beside
specific documents on sexual violence), because a main cause of violence
against women is the structural inequality between men and women.
Therefore, empowerment of women is crucial, as well as strengthening their
economic independence. The issue of stereotyping women receives special
attention, since changing dominant gender stereotyping constitutes an
important goal in preventive policies. Stereotypes of men and women
negatively affect the human rights of women. Previous research (the
Groenman Report) has called this the ‘dominant gender ideology’. The
Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment commissioned a large education
campaign on the issue of stereotyping in the late nineties.
In Dutch emancipation policy, three periods may be
distinguished, each having a different emphasis and each with a different
ministry taking the lead. The first period (1984-1990)
set out the basis for Dutch policy. The policy documents in that period,
notably the first government paper on sexual violence, were written from
the perspective of the right to personal integrity. The care for victims
of sexual violence was a central element of policy, as well as the
prevention of such violence against women. During this period the sexual
offences provisions in the Criminal Code were revised.
In the period
1990-1995, emphasis shifted from the Ministry of Social Affairs, which
was policy co-ordinator during the first period, to the Ministry of Health,
Welfare and Sports. This Ministry mostly focused on efforts to integrate
facilities for victims of violence against women into the regular health
and rehabilitation and welfare sector. The government took a less active
approach in this period.
Finally, in the period
1995-present, the Ministry of Justice is more or less the
co-ordinating department on the subject. As a result, policy documents
reflect a more legal approach focusing on the offender. There seems to be
relatively more attention for common violence (violence in public places
and so-called random violence), and also for sexual violence against and
commercial exploitation of children, but less for wife battering.
Recently, efforts have been made to develop a so-called
‘interdepartmental policy’ on violence against women. A first policy
plan was formulated in January 1999. An Interdepartmental working group
for the prevention and elimination of violence against women, that was
supposed to work out the plan in detail, appeared promising, but has been
“dormant” since. Nothing has been done with the overall plan, although
the Ministry of Justice is now working on an interdepartmental policy on
one of the most needy issues in the Netherlands, domestic violence.
The study on domestic violence has been written by Dr
Renée Römkens. It describes the nature and the scale of this type of
violence, including battering, stalking, rape by (ex-) partners or other
acquaintances and sexual abuse by a family member. Insufficient data are
available on the occurrence of domestic violence among women from ethnic
and cultural minorities. It is submitted that domestic violence
constitutes a significant problem in The Netherlands. The case study then
describes various causes of domestic violence, such as dependence, shame,
the fact that the violence occurs in the private sphere and gender aspects.
Much of the relevant legislation is included in the
legislation covering sexual offences in general. In 1991, a major revision
of this legislation took place, aimed at offering protection to vulnerable
groups, especially minors. Criminal provisions were re-formulated, now
using gender-neutral terms. An important amendment constituted the
criminalisation of marital rape. Other relevant legislation concerns
measures to improve the position of victims in criminal procedures, which
is applicable to victims of sexual violence.
In
order to improve the treatment of victims of sexual offences, two
directives have recently (1 October 1999) been published by the Public
Prosecutor. Generally speaking, the treatment of victims of sexual
violence leaves much to be desired, but many initiatives have been taken
to try to remedy the situation. Though improvements have been achieved,
there is still much criticism on the way in which the police deal with
victims of domestic (and related forms of) violence. Due to the
introduction of the 1993 Police Act and the reorganisation of the police,
many specialised units in the police departments, including those dealing
with sexual offences, were abolished, and their tasks were integrated in
the general tasks of the police. Domestic violence and treatment of
victims of sexual violence have not been made a priority issue in the
policy document issued by the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of
Justice. There is much emphasis on child pornography and random street
violence. The chapter expresses serious concerns about the attention that
will be devoted to ‘common’ sexual offences, including rape and sexual
abuse by (ex-)partners, acquaintances or family members, which constitute
the larger part of the violence women suffer from.
The
training of police personnel includes youth and sexual offences, though
there is not much attention for these issues. There is no specific mention
of the problem of battering of women.
Measures
have been taken to try to cope with the quantitative and qualitative
problems in the field of professional support for victims of sexual
violence (rape and sexual abuse). Further, measures have been taken to
enhance gender sensitivity of professionals who may have to deal with
violence against women, though there is not much specific attention for
domestic violence.
In the past decades, domestic violence has not received
proper attention. Also recent policy documents from various ministerial
departments do not pay due attention to this problem. It is particularly
noteworthy that in a policy document on security of the person domestic
violence is not mentioned. It is yet unclear whether there is a connection
between the increase of violence in public places and violence in the
private sphere. Nevertheless, policy is aimed primarily at violence in the
public sphere. Despite various proposals, there is no specific provision
in the Criminal Code concerning domestic violence.
At the national level, battering of women is not a
priority for the police. At the regional level, some good initiatives have
been taken, which would be worth implementing also by other police
departments. There is no national policy to develop co-operation between
the police, the prosecutor’s office and support services, though there
are a number of initiatives at the local level. Due to lack of financial
support, many initiatives cannot be continued. There are insufficient
shelters for victims of battering. Furthermore, the curricula of health
care personnel do not pay adequate attention to gender specific issues and
to battering of women. A specialised organisation has been given a special
task in this respect. It is submitted that it is necessary to take the
specific circumstances of migrant women into account.
Following an initiative of private pressure groups, in
the fall of 1999 the Second Chamber of Parliament adopted legislation
criminalising stalking.
It is not yet possible to provide conclusions on the effects of this law.
At the national level, there is no specific policy concerning counselling
and aiding victims of stalking. The Minister of Justice has announced that
he will explore the possibilities to introduce a successful local project
at the national level, although he pointed at the problems brought about
by the decentralisation of the police.
In 1991, marital rape was made a criminal offence.
Research has revealed that there are problems in implementing this
provision. It has even been concluded that the current interpretation of
this criminal provision, in particular of the terms “coercion” and “willing”,
has served the protection of the offender, rather than that of the victim.
In the Dutch Criminal Code, the term “sexual abuse”
is used when it concerns minor victims, adult victims who are in a
dependent position, and coercion in sexual relations with physically or
mentally handicapped persons. In 1999, the government published a policy
paper on sexual abuse of and sexual violence against children. The policy
paper states that the implementation of policy will be co-ordinated by a
project group composed of government representatives and non-governmental
organisations. A National Plan of Action to combat sexual abuse and sexual
exploitation as well as a comprehensive national plan of activities is
forthcoming.
An
evaluation of the amendment of the provisions in the Criminal Code dealing
with sexual offences, which enhanced criminalisation of sexual abuse of
children, showed that the protection of children against sexual abuse had
not improved.
In
1994, the limitation period to initiate civil and criminal proceedings was
altered to give the victim of sexual abuse more time to start proceedings.
In
combating incest, criminal law plays a predominant role, as well as the (sometimes
compulsory) treatment of offenders. The introduction of an obligation to
report cases of sexual abuse is being discussed. There appears to be
consensus that there should be no obligation to report cases to the police.
Government policy is aimed at providing aid to the family, it is believed
that a criminal action would not be beneficial to such supportive measures.
It is concluded that policy regarding domestic violence
is insufficiently coherent, and at some points even contradictory. The
plan of action on domestic violence, included in the Emancipation Plan of
Action, contains a number of recommendations in the field of communication
and co-ordination. However, it must be realised that much remains to be
done, since the recent past shows that the Government’s view of domestic
violence is not always clear, nor consistent. The marginalisation of the
problem of battering of women illustrates the lack of a clear vision on
the problem of violence against women. There is hardly any coherent policy
aimed at combating battering and rape of women by their (ex) partners. The
division of responsibilities between the central and lower authorities
often constitutes a bottleneck.
The
Government has commissioned a number of studies on domestic violence. Yet,
there are shortcomings concerning data on the specific situation of women
of non-Dutch origin. Moreover, the National Office of Statistics does not
provide information on the relationship between the offender and the
victim in the cases of violence and unnatural death.
Insufficient
financial resources are available to provide adequate aid and support
facilities.
Although
many NGO’s receive financial support, this is often of a temporary
rather than a structural nature.
Mainstreaming
of policy should not be detrimental to its effectiveness. Dutch policy
shows a number of examples in which that is indeed the case: the abolition
of the specialised units in police departments dealing with sexual
offences, and the integration of specialised care in the general health
sector.
CEDAW
has made it clear that domestic violence should not receive less attention
than violence in the public sphere. However, the policy regarding the
police tasks does not comply with this requirement. Domestic violence is
not accorded adequate priority, which leads to insufficient protection of
women and girls in the private sphere. Marginalisation of domestic
violence is most evident in the field of violence by (ex) partners.
There
is no comprehensive Domestic Violence Act in The Netherlands. The study
does not conclude that such legislation would be strictly necessary in the
Dutch context, since not all policy has a foundation in law. Battering of
women falls within the scope of the general provisions on assault in the
Criminal Code; however, these may not always be adequate in the specific
cases of gender-based violence. In view of the belief that domestic
violence is a private matter outside the responsibilities of police and
the prosecutor, it is concluded that the Criminal Code indeed has some
shortcomings. It is necessary to carry out further research whether an
amendment of the Criminal Code would be the best solution.
Mandatory
arrest in the case of domestic violence is not possible under Dutch law.
Enhancing the possibilities of arrest and investigation will be realised
through general legislation. Restraining orders under civil law (prohibition
of contacting the victim, or appearing in the neighbourhood of the victim)
are possible under Dutch law. It is noted that such orders are often
difficult to obtain from a court. In weighing the right to liberty of
movement of the offender, and the right to security of the victim, the
court often gives priority to the former. Furthermore, the enforcement of
such orders is difficult.
Preventive
measures concerning sexual violence have been taken. However, these do not
adequately address battering of women and rape by partners. Treatment of
offenders and rehabilitation of offenders receives much attention, with
the exception of - again - offenders of battering and rape of partners.
Although
steps have been taken to enhance the gender sensitivity and professional
training of the police and the prosecutor in the treatment of victims,
problems remain in so far as it concerns the implementation thereof.
Battering and stalking by (ex) partners is often not taken sufficiently
serious, leading to non-intervention and inadequate remedies. It is
necessary to amend structurally the training and education of the relevant
professions, including the police, the prosecution and the judiciary.
Furthermore, it is necessary that co-operation between the police,
prosecutor and aid workers be improved in order to provide effective
protection of victims of domestic violence. Successful local initiatives
should be implemented at the national level.
CEDAW
has pointed at the need to ensure that the offender leaves the house,
rather than de facto obliging
the victim to seek shelter elsewhere. Dutch civil law may provide
sufficient room for such a measure; if this turns out to be insufficient,
amending the legislation should be considered.
Much
progress has been made in providing shelter to victims. Nevertheless,
there are significant shortages. Due attention must be paid to the
specific needs of migrant women.
Much
progress has been made in enhancing gender sensitivity of aid workers.
Despite this improvement, structural embedding of the necessary training
and education is not sufficient. This holds true for aiding victims of
sexual violence, in particular battering. Development of knowledge of the
specific situation of women belonging to ethnic and cultural minorities
has lagged behind.
In conclusion, it is recommended to:
·
develop a national, coherent policy on domestic
violence;
·
to embed the policy of preventing domestic violence in
the general emancipation policy;
·
to establish and integrate the policy on domestic
violence and the policy concerning security issues and violence in general;
·
to demarginalise the policy of battering of women;
·
to enhance the possibilities of preventive custody;
·
to provide for a remedy to force the offender to leave
the home in the case of systematic violence, when current civil law turns
out to be inadequate;
·
to make concrete policy concerning the investigation
and prosecution of stalking;
·
to issue a directive to the police and the prosecutor
about the investigation and prosecution of battering of women;
·
to monitor closely the implementation of the policy on
granting asylum on the ground of sexual violence;
·
to develop preventive measures by educating children,
especially on the issue of battering of women;
·
to inform the general public on the issue of battering
of women;
·
to increase gender sensitivity and professional
training in dealing with violence against women of the police and the
prosecutor;
·
to increase gender sensitivity of other relevant
professions, including health personnel and aid workers.
The study on sexual harassment has been written by Dr
Rikki Holtmaat. It deals with sexual harassment in three different fields:
at the workplace, in the education system, and in the health sector. The
only definition of sexual harassment at hand in the Netherlands (in the
Labour Conditions Act) concerns the workplace, and it is therefore not
easily applicable to the other fields mentioned, since it does not take
into consideration the main characteristics of the two other fields.
In many cases there is no specific complaints procedure
for sexual harassment in the workplace, since the private sector is not
legally obliged to have such a procedure. CEDAW has stated that there
should be a complaints procedure, and that complainants should be
protected from suffering any negative consequences of filing a complaint.
Chapter 5 states that it appears that in The Netherlands many women lose
their jobs, as a result of either sexual harassment or filing a complaint
about it.
The Dutch government is undertaking many activities to
prevent and eliminate sexual harassment in education. Much attention is
being paid to increasing gender sensitivity and professional training on
the subject. Furthermore, the fact that the curriculum structurally draws
attention to sexual education and empowerment of the pupils is mentioned
as a positive aspect. However, further improvements are required. A
project on the prevention of sexual harassment should be financed on a
structural basis. The need for a specifically tailored definition of
sexual harassment in the education system, should be looked into. Recent
legislation obliging schools to establish (general) complaints procedures
should be evaluated in order to examine whether these are adequate for
victims of sexual harassment, and whether there is sufficient
co-ordination with other relevant institutions. There should be an
obligation to appoint an expert, external, independent, low threshold
institution for victims of sexual harassment.
Insufficient data are available on the extent and
nature of sexual harassment in the health and youth welfare sector.
Victims of sexual harassment can avail themselves of various measures of a
general nature. It is the government’s view that the various sectors
themselves should set the standards. However, none of the available
instruments explicitly deal with sexual harassment. Current standards are,
however, too vague and refer to, for example “carry out one’s
profession properly”. It is submitted that many victims do not know that
these measures available for the purpose of lodging a complaint about
sexual harassment. Many commissions lack the specific expertise that is
necessary to deal with this type of complaints; moreover, there are no
guarantees for the independence of the (members of ) commissions. It is
necessary that further qualitative and quantitative research is carried
out. If standard setting by the relevant professions turns out to be
inadequate to deal with sexual harassment, there should be directives from
the government. It must be examined whether this sector requires its own
definition of sexual harassment.
In many areas, there are insufficient recent data on
the nature and extent of the problem of sexual harassment. Further
qualitative and quantitative research is necessary. The ministries that
are involved should establish better co-ordination and should exchange
information.
The
definition on sexual harassment at the workplace conforms to the
requirements laid down in General Recommendation No. 19, although it
should be examined whether more specific definitions may be necessary for
the education, health care and youth welfare sectors.
In
various areas, there is no obligation to establish an institution to deal
with complaints of sexual harassment. Moreover, complaints procedures were
found to be insufficiently specific for complaints on sexual harassment.
There are insufficient guarantees for the independence and expertise
commissions dealing with complaints.
Concerning
the requirement to offer effective protection, improvements are required.
Although legal remedies exist in labour law, many women who lodge
complaints about sexual harassment in the workplace lose their job. Also
in the education and health and welfare sector there are no specific
provisions protecting women from negative consequences of sexual
harassment, or from lodging complaints.
The
measures to prevent sexual harassment, aimed at eliminating stereotypes,
have been insufficient.
The chapter on trafficking in women and sexual
exploitation was written by Dr Yvonne Klerk. It deals with both
exploitation of forced prostitution and trafficking in women. In the
Netherlands, about 30,000 persons work in the prostitution business. The
Dutch government does not consider prostitution as such as a form of
violence against women. For the Dutch government the aim is not to
eliminate prostitution as such, but to eliminate only the exploitation of
forced prostitution. Therefore, as of 1 October 2000, running a brothel or
other sex business will be officially legalised in the Netherlands. Policy
will be developed at the local level in order to eliminate exploitation of
forced prostitution, to protect the position of prostitutes and to
decrease the number of prostitutes illegally residing in The Netherlands.
It is subject to debate whether article 6 of the Women’s
Convention deals with exploitation of prostitution as such or only with
exploitation of forced prostitution. The UN Declaration on Violence
against Women seems to indicate the latter, but CEDAW is of the opinion
that pimps should be punished which could mean that all exploitation of
prostitution should be eliminated. This would mean that Dutch policy is
not in accordance with the Women’s Convention. Yet, it must be realised
that it receives the support from professional organisations of
prostitutes. Women from countries outside the European Union and the
European Economic Area are especially vulnerable in this regard; they are
excluded from the protective advantages (such as labour conditions) that a
legalisation of prostitution offers. Another shortcoming of Dutch
prostitution policy is that there are no activities directed at male
clients of prostitutes, such as education measures and resocialization
programmes.
Forced prostitution is often considered in close
relation with trafficking in women. Both the international (cross-border)
and national aspects of trafficking in women are dealt with in this
chapter. Much remains unclear with regard to the character and scope of
international trafficking in women. As a result of the 1997 EU conference
on trafficking in women in The Hague, the post of national rapporteur on
trafficking in persons (although at first the mandate was “trafficking
in women”) has been established in the Netherlands; the rapporteur has
been appointed in January 2000.
Trafficking in women is a crime in the Netherlands. It
is important to note, however, how the police and the public prosecutor
deal with it. Various problems have been noted with regard to the
investigation and prosecution of trafficking in women. More financial and
personal means are necessary. CEDAW has also drawn attention to the
Internet, which is being (ab‑)used for trafficking in women. These
new developments as well as the effects of the legalisation of
prostitution need to be closely watched.
It is unclear whether the legalisation of prostitution
will contribute to the elimination of trafficking in women, although that
is one of its main purposes. The legalisation could very well lead to
negative ‘side effects’, which all but contribute to the elimination
of trafficking in women. It is feared that women will end up in places
where there will be less monitoring than there is now.
This is also the case for forced prostitution within
the Netherlands. A specific problems concerns minor girls from ethnic
minorities, who are being forced into prostitution by their partner.
Emotional pressure is common, for example through so-called ‘lover
boys’. There have been also several cases where minor girls have
disappeared from asylum seekers reception centres, later to be found in (child)
prostitution. Special attention has been announced by the government for
their development, since children in the asylum procedure need to be
protected from sexual exploitation.
Finally, the chapter contains an analysis of several
‘new’ forms of sexual exploitation, such as sex tourism, the
recruitment of household personnel from developing countries, and
organised marriages between women from developing countries and men in the
Netherlands. More research is needed with regard to these “new” forms
of sexual exploitation.
The chapter on violations of sexual and reproductive
rights was written by Mignon van der Liet-Senders, LL.M. The chapter
firstly deals with the nature of sexual and reproductive rights and the
relationship with health issues and the right to health. The terms
“sexual rights” and “reproductive rights” are often used together,
but a distinction can be made. Sexual and reproductive rights are closely
connected with women’s health. Since breaches of sexual and reproductive
rights can have great consequences for women’s health, the term is often
used in connection with reproductive health. CEDAW has stated in General
Recommendation No. 19 that violence against women jeopardises the health
and lives of women, and that states parties are required by article 12 of
the Convention to take measures to ensure equal access to health care (to
family planning)’. The Committee also stated that traditional practices
perpetuated by culture and tradition are harmful to the health of women
and children. These practices include dietary restrictions for pregnant
women, preference for male children and female circumcision or genital
mutilation.
There are many possible infringements of sexual and
reproductive rights. Regarded as most relevant in the Netherlands, the
rest of the chapter focuses on female genital mutilation and on unwanted
pregnancy. In the Netherlands, the term more often used is ‘female
circumcision’ (especially in Dutch policy documents). It is recommended,
however, to use the term ‘female genital mutilation’ or FGM, which is
also being used at the international level.
Dutch government policy is that female genital
mutilation is not tolerable in any form. According to the Dutch government
it is a practice that is against the predominant opinion in the
Netherlands on the equality of women and their position in society.
However, it has not been specifically penalised. The government is of the
opinion that the general provisions on assault in the Criminal Code and
the regulations concerning the medical profession are sufficient in
dealing with the issue. At several occasions questions have been asked in
Parliament on practices relating to female genital mutilation in the
Netherlands.
There are no data on the occurrence of female genital
mutilation in the Netherlands. It is likely that many Somali women and
girls in the Netherlands have been mutilated, but it is not likely that
FGM is restricted to the Somali community; it probably happens also within
other ethnic minority groups. With the number and variety of ethnic
minorities in the Netherlands rising, female genital mutilation is an
issue that needs to get appropriate and attention.
CEDAW’s general recommendation on female circumcision
stresses that States parties should take necessary and effective measures
to eliminate the practice. Such measures include assembling data,
supporting women’s organisations, and introducing appropriate education
and training programmes. The chapter concludes that having female genital
mutilation specifically criminalized in the Criminal Code in the
Netherlands is necessary, but not sufficient. In order to deal effectively
with FGM, criminalization is preferred, but educational activities are
also needed to influence these practices that are mostly culturally
founded.
The final part of this chapter deals with unwanted
pregnancies, which is not a large problem in the Netherlands. There are no
signs of forced pregnancies or – on the other hand – forced abortions.
Every year, in the Netherlands some 20,000 abortions are being carried
out. This amounts to the lowest abortion rate in the world, although this
number is slightly rising among women of non-Dutch origin.
Abortion in the Netherlands is sufficiently arranged
for and accessible. A woman does not need permission from her husband to
have an abortion. Freedom of choice for women is essential. Therefore, in
the Netherlands, means for birth control should continue to be widely
available and affordable. The fact that the number of abortions on women
from ethnic minorities is relatively rising, gives cause for concern.
The concluding chapter provides an overall analysis of
the findings of the study, and provides general and subject-based
conclusions and recommendations. Many of the conclusions with regard to
the specific forms of violence against women have already been included in
this summary. The main general findings are summarised in this section.
·
Dutch policy has not always sufficiently taken into
account that the problem of violence against women is a human rights
issue. Recent policy documents show a broad human rights perspective.
·
Policy documents issued after 1990 no longer take as a
starting point that violence against women is a result of structural
inequality between men and women. It is necessary that the policy on
violence against women is solidly embedded in emancipation policy.
·
The gender specific nature of violence against women is
no longer the primary starting point in Dutch policy. Policy is being
formulated in gender neutral terms. Policy aimed at dealing with other
urgent problems has been detrimental to the issue of violence against
adult women.
·
Domestic violence does not always receive proper
attention. There are many more efforts to eradicate violence in the public
sphere, rather than violence in the private sphere. It is not sufficiently
acknowledged that violence against women is as well a social problem.
·
The eradication of violence against women should obtain
a high priority in Dutch policy, in view of the fact that the Women’s
Convention contains obligations of result. Violence against women does not
receive the same attention as other forms of violence.
·
Policy co-ordination is not sufficient. Various
ministries develop their own policy on violence against women or on
emancipation, while other ministries have not developed any policy on the
issue. It is necessary that co-ordination is enhanced. Some steps have
been taken in the right direction, though these have not led to the
desired outcome.
·
During the past decades different ministries have taken
the lead in developing policy on violence against women. This has resulted
in policy changes, which were more or less accidental rather than
deliberate changes. This is due to lack of co-ordination.
·
A member of government should be responsible for
substantive and technical co-ordination of policy on violence against
women. There should be a coherent and visible policy. State accountability
should be clear.
·
In various areas, insufficient data, or no recent data
are available. It is necessary that systematic and continuous research is
carried out. Policy in this area must be adequately co-ordinated. Moreover,
research must take into account the diversity of Dutch society.
·
The division of responsibilities between central and
lower authorities constitutes a bottleneck in various areas.
·
Sufficient resources are not always available, or not
available on a structural basis.
·
Many legislative measures have been taken which have a
positive effect on the eradication of violation against women. There is no
legislation covering the entire issue. It has not been shown that an all
encompassing Violence Against Women Act would indeed be the proper
solution for The Netherlands. Further research into this matter is
necessary. In some areas, for example in the area of female genital
mutilation, new legislation is required.
·
In so far as complaints procedures are concerned, no
major shortcomings were found. In principle complaints concerning each
form of violence against women can be submitted to an institution. However,
existing procedures are often not sufficiently specific to deal adequately
with the issue of violence against women; many commissions or other
institutions, including the police, the prosecutor and the judiciary, lack
sufficient expertise. Independence of institutions dealing with complaints
is not always guaranteed. Moreover, it is sometimes not obvious for
victims which remedy they have at their disposal which may hamper
accessibility of such remedies. Shortcomings were found in the area of
sexual harassment.
·
The Women's Convention distinguishes two different,
though related types of preventive measures. First, the empowerment of
women, which requires women's economic independence and a change of the
traditional roles. Second, the change of stereotyping of men and women.
Dutch policy is based on these two pillars, although the policy on
violence against women should be more firmly embedded in emancipation
policy. Improvements are necessary in so far as it concerns stereotyping.
Although there have been campaigns, the goals set have not been achieved.
Moreover, in certain areas, such as battering of women, there have been no
campaigns. More measures would have to be taken in the field of education.
·
The study shows that much has been improved in the area
of providing shelter and support services to victims of violence against
women. However, serious shortcomings were still found. There are
insufficient shelter facilities. The quality of shelter and support
services needs to be further improved by, inter
alia, professional education and training and enhancing gender
sensitivity.
·
The lack of gender sensitivity among police and
prosecutors constitutes a concern. The treatment of victims of sexual
offences in particular leaves much to be desired. Attention for violence
against women does not constitute a structural element in the education of
the relevant professional groups. Local projects that proved to be
successful should be implemented at the national level.
Chapter 8 concludes with 108 recommendations,
addressing general and specific policy issues. The recommendations of a
general nature that are based on the overall analysis are included in the
present summary. Most recommendations based on the four case studies have
already been mentioned.
·
Violence against women is a human rights problem. This
understanding should constitute a foundation of the policy on the
eradication of violence against women. It should be explicitly laid down
in all relevant policy documents.
·
Violence against women is a social problem, rather than
a private problem or a women’s problem. This understanding should
constitute a foundation of the policy on the eradication of violence
against women. It should be explicitly laid down in all relevant policy
documents.
·
Violence against women is caused by the structural
inequality between men and women. This understanding should play a crucial
role in the development of policy.
·
Economic independence of women and a fundamental shift
in care taking as well as empowerment of women in general should continue
to be a priority.
·
Policy on violence against women should be firmly
embedded in emancipation policy.
·
Policy aimed at the eradication of stereotyping of men
and women should be continued and enhanced.
·
The gender specific nature of violence against women
should be re-recognised. Mainstreaming of policy should not result in
increased attention for violence in general to the detriment of battering,
rape and harassment of adult women.
·
A National Plan of Action must be adopted to prevent
and combat all forms of violence against women.
·
The National Plan of Action should take into account
CEDAW’s General Recommendation No. 19, the UN Declaration on the
Elimination of violence against Women and the Platform for Action of
Beijing.
·
The National Plan of Action must be comprehensive. It
should define the framework for all aspects of future policy concerning
violence against women.
·
The National Plan of Action must be drafted in close
co-operation with experts, including NGOs.
·
NGOs should be involved in implementing the various
elements of the National Plan of Action.
·
Statistical data should continuously be collected and
available to give insight into the nature, the causes and the consequences
of the problem.
·
There should be qualitative and quantitative research
into the nature, the causes and the consequences of the problem on a
structural basis. This requires a structural investment into investigation
of, advising about and evaluation of policy measures.
·
All policy measures must be evaluated. Adequate
monitoring is required.
·
There must be specific attention for the position of
women from ethnic and cultural minorities and other vulnerable groups of
women.
·
Choosing a policy instrument must be based on research.
·
Choosing a policy instrument requires setting
benchmarks, and time frames within which these must be realised.
·
There must be commitment of a high level within the
national authorities.
·
Sufficient resources must be made available on a
structural basis.
·
Violence against women should obtain at least as much
priority as violence in the public sphere.
·
The use of complaints procedures must be encouraged.
·
The expertise and independence of commissions dealing
with complaints must be guaranteed.
·
Emancipation policy should be strongly pursued.
·
National campaigns aimed at the eradication of
stereotypes should be intensified, in particular on the issue of violence
in the private sphere.
·
In education more attention should be paid to the
eradication of stereotyping.
·
Policy concerning stereotyping should pay attention to
the effects of pornography, in particular violent pornography.
·
The text of the Women’s Convention, the Optional
Protocol, CEDAW’s general recommendations, the concluding observations
on the Netherlands, the UN Declaration on Violence against Women, et cetera, should be widely made accessible.
·
Women should be properly informed of their human rights
in general, and on their rights in connection with violence against women
in particular.
·
Shortages in shelter and support services should be
alleviated as soon as possible.
·
Integration of support services into general health
care should be realised only when there is sufficient expertise in the
latter field.
·
Expertise in health care should be realised (partly) by
structurally including the issue in the professional training and
education of the various professions.
·
Co-operation between various support services must be
encouraged, but it can only be successful if there is sufficient financial
support.
·
There should be structural attention for the issue of
violence against women in the professional training and education of the
police, the prosecutor and the judiciary.
·
The police should have specialised personnel to deal
with victims of sexual offences.
·
Successful projects at the local level should be
implemented at the national level.
·
Specialised institutions in the field of professional
training and education should be structurally financed.
Schematisch
overzicht verplichtingen volgens CEDAW
Geweldvorm
|
Algemeen
|
Wettelijke maatregelen
|
Geweld tegen vrouwen in het
algemeen, alsmede alle specifieke vormen van geweld
|
- Erkenning dat het geen privé-probleem of
vrouwenprobleem is, maar een maatschappelijk probleem
- Erkenning als schending van de rechten van de mens
- Nationaal actieplan, waarin een alomvattende en
gestructureerde aanpak wordt verwoord
- ‘Committent’ van overheid op hoog niveau, of een
nationale instelling
- Voortdurend onderzoek naar aard, omvang en gevolgen
- Onderzoek naar de aard en omvang van traditionele
opvattingen en gewoontes die geweld tegen vrouwen in stand houden
- Onderzoek naar de effectiviteit van de getroffen
maatregelen
- Verzamelen van statistische gegevens
- Voldoende middelen
- Betrekken van deskundigen uit het maatschappelijk veld
bij alle aspecten van beleid, waaronder NGO’s
- ‘Mainstreaming’, mits niet ten koste van
effectiviteit
- Behandeling van zaken met betrekking tot geweld tegen
vrouwen moeten voldoende prioriteit krijgen
- Traditionele opvattingen houden pornografie en andere
vormen van commerciële uitbuiting van vrouwen als sex-objecten in
stand. Dit bevordert geweld tegen vrouwen
|
- Specifieke wetgeving inzake geweld tegen vrouwen
- Wetgeving mag niet discriminatoir zijn
- Prostituées moeten gelijke bescherming krijgen
- Bewijslast bij seksuele geweldsmisdrijven mag niet
zwaarder zijn dan bij andere misdrijven
- Wetgeving moet integriteit en waardigheid van vrouwen
respecteren
- Strafrechtelijke maatregelen
- Civielrechtelijke maatregelen
- Instelling van klachtprocedures
- Verlening van slachtofferhulp
- Wetgeving moet bescherming bieden tegen secundaire
victimisatie
- Compensatie voor slachtoffers
- Rehabilitatie van slachtoffers
- Strafbaarstelling van eremoorden
- Geen strafvermindering bij misdrijven gebaseerd op eer
- Mogelijkheid van beroep op noodweer als
strafuitsluitings-grond, wanneer een vrouw een misdrijf pleegt dat
een reactie is op het structurele geweld waarvan zij slachtoffer
is
|
Klachtproce-dures & rechtsmiddelen
|
Preventieve maatregelen
|
Beschermende maatregelen
|
- Brede bekendheid
- Gemakkelijk toegankelijk
- Effectieve bescherming
- Stimulering van het gebruik, ook met behulp van NGO’s
- Compensatie
|
- Uitbannen van stereotypen door educatie en voorlichting
- Veranderen van traditionele rolverdeling
- Bevorderen van de economische zelfstandigheid van
vrouwen
- ‘Empowerment’ van
vrouwen
- Maatregelen ook richten op jongeren en op mannen
- Inzetten van de media
- Uitbannen tradities en gewoonten die geweld tegen
vrouwen in stand houden
- Bewustmaken: verspreiden tekst Vrouwenverdrag,
landencommentaren en andere relevante informatie in Nederland
- Ondersteunen van vrouwen die risico’s lopen
- Daderbehandeling
|
- Specialistische hulpverlening
- Medische en psychologische zorg
- Voldoende opvang en ondersteuning
- (Rechts-)bijstand (‘counseling’)
- Deskundigheidsbevordering van relevante beroepsgroepen
- Voor ziekenhuizen protocollen maken over omgaan met
geweld tegen vrouwen
- Rehabilitatie van slachtoffers
- Bescherming bieden tegen secundaire victimisatie
|
|
Geweldvorm
|
Algemeen
|
Wettelijke maatregelen
|
|
Geweld in de huiselijke sfeer
|
- Onderzoek en vervolging van geweld in de huiselijke
sfeer moeten evenveel prioriteit krijgen als andere misdrijven
|
- Strafbaarstelling van geweld in de huiselijke sfeer
- Strafbaarstelling van incest
- Strafbaarstelling van eremoorden
- Geen strafvermindering bij misdrijven gebaseerd op eer
- Specifieke wetgeving aanbevolen
- Wettelijke regeling voor rechtsbijstand en
daderbehandeling
|
Seksuele intimidatie
|
- Sancties opleggen bij seksuele intimidatie
|
- Effectieve wettelijke bescherming moet worden geboden
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Klachtproce-dures & rechtsmiddelen
|
Preventieve maatregelen
|
Beschermende maatregelen
|
|
- Geen klachtdelict: onderzoek en vervolging ook na klacht
van een derde
- Telefonische hulplijnen
|
- Veranderen van traditionele opvattingen
- Bevorderen van economische onafhankelijkheid: creëren
van voldoende werkgelegenheid
- Bevorderen van grotere verantwoordelijkheid van mannen
in het gezin
- Rehabilitatieprogramma’s voor daders
|
- Deskundigheidsbevordering van relevante beroepsgroepen
- Beschermen van de veiligheid van slachtoffers
- Wanneer een van de partners het huis verlaat, zou dat de
man moeten zijn
- Voldoende opvang en ondersteuning
- (Rechts-)bijstand
- Rehabilitatieprogramma’s voor slachtoffers
- Rehabilitatieprogramma’s voor daders
- Ondersteunen van een gezin waar geweld heeft
plaatsgevonden
|
- Klachtproce-dures moeten toegankelijk zijn
- Klachtproce-dures moeten effectief zijn
- Klachtproce-dures moeten bescherming bieden
- Speciaal genoemd: gezondheids-sector
|
- Bescherming tegen seksuele intimidatie
- Bevorderen van economische zelfstandigheid van vrouwen
|
- Bescherming tegen secundaire victimisatie
- Klachtprocedures moeten bescherming bieden
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Geweldvorm
|
Algemeen
|
Wettelijke maatregelen
|
Vrouwenhandel en seksuele
exploitatie
|
- Internationale samenwerking noodzakelijk
- Implementatie van de Ministeriële Verklaring van Den
Haag
- Onderzoeken van de rol van Internet
- Aandacht voor prostitutie bij gewapende conflicten
- Aandacht voor hedendaagse vormen, zoals sekstoerisme,
werven van huishoudelijke krachten in ontwikkelings-landen en
bepaalde vormen van georganiseerde huwelijken, omdat deze vrouwen
een risicogroep vormen
|
- Strafbaarstelling vrouwenhandel
- Strafbaarstelling uitbuiting prostitutie: voor pooiers
en ronselaars
- Decriminaliseren prostituées
- Gelijke bescherming voor prostituées tegen seksueel
geweld
|
|
Inbreuken op seksuele en
reproduktieve rechten
|
- Nadruk op keuzevrijheid van de vrouw bij gezinsplanning
- Geen toestemming van de man voor sterilisatie of abortus
- Specifiek: voortbestaan van schadelijke traditionele
praktijken als oorzaak
- Nadruk op gevolgen van te veel zwangerschappen en van
tienerzwangerschappen
|
- Strafbaarstelling van genitale verminking
- Abortuswetgeving moet niet te restrictief zijn
- Geen strafbaarstelling van vrouwen die abortus hebben
ondergaan
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Klachtproce-dures & rechtsmiddelen
|
Preventieve maatregelen
|
Beschermende maatregelen
|
|
- Bestrijden van armoede van vrouwen
- Bestrijden van werkloosheid
- Voorlichtingscampagnes in de landen van herkomst
- Resocialisatieprogramma’s ook voor mannen
|
- Nieuwe mogelijkheden creëren voor vrouwen op de
arbeidsmarkt
- Bescherming van vrouwelijke migranten tegen uitbuiting
- Deskundigheidsbevordering van grensbewakers
- Bescherming van de gezondheid van prostituées
- Rehabilitatie van slachtoffers van seksuele exploitatie
en vrouwenhandel; reïntegratie in de maatschappij
- Geen gedwongen medische controle van alleen prostituées
|
|
|
- Maatregelen ter voorkoming van dwang bij voortplanting
en vruchtbaarheid
- Voorkomen dat vrouwen onveilige methoden gaan gebruiken,
zoals illegale en onveilige abortus
- Goede toegankelijkheid van anticonceptie, dat wil
zeggen: effectief, betaalbaar en aanvaardbare methoden
- Subsidiëring of gratis verstrekking van anticonceptie
- Voorlichting richten ook op mannen en jongeren
- Voorkoming van tienerzwangerschappen
- Bestrijden van traditionele praktijken door educatieve
en juridische maatregelen
|
- Mogelijkheid tot veilige abortus moet bestaan
- Degenen die besnijdenis uitvoeren moeten alternatieve
werkgelegenheid hebben
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
BIJLAGE
2
DAGINDELING
IN NEDERLAND: VIA EXPERIMENTEN NAAR NIEUWE AFSPRAKEN ROND ARBEID EN ZORG.
DAGINDELING
IN NEDERLAND: VIA EXPERIMENTEN NAAR NIEUWE AFSPRAKEN ROND ARBEID EN ZORG.
Het
door de Nederlandse overheid in gang gezette emancipatiebeleid heeft de
afgelopen jaren duidelijk gemaakt dat een aantal - traditionele -
structuren in de samenleving belemmerend werken voor het bereiken van
gestelde doelen rond het combineren van arbeid en zorg.
Het
Combinatiescenario streeft naar
een gelijke verdeling van arbeid en zorgtaken tussen mannen en vrouwen.
Dit scenario is in 1995 ontwikkeld door de Commissie
Toekomstscenario’s herverdeling onbetaalde arbeid. Vergeleken met de
situatie van enkele decennia geleden is de taakverdeling in de meeste
huishoudens drastisch veranderd. Het traditionele kostwinnersmodel (waarbij
per gezin één persoon - meestal de man - het gezinsinkomen verdient) is
vrijwel verlaten. De in de jaren tachtig en negentig van de vorige eeuw in
gang gezette trend dat vrouwen arbeid combineren met huishoudelijke en
zorgtaken en dat mannen zich niet meer alleen beperken tot betaalde
arbeid, zet zich duidelijk door. De zorgverantwoordelijkheid betreft niet
alleen kinderen, maar ook ouderen en zieken. Daarnaast is zorg voor de
eigen ontwikkeling en vrije tijd een factor die bij de toenemende
tijdsdruk onder taakcombineerders van belang is.
Ook
de groeiende diversiteit in de samenleving heeft gevolgen voor de
dagindeling van velen. Traditionele samenlevingspatronen maken plaats voor
andere leefverbanden die in vorm en duur gevarieerder zijn. Het aantal
'zorgverbanden' is hierdoor toegenomen, zoals bijvoorbeeld duidelijk wordt
bij co-ouders.
Al
deze ontwikkelingen brengen met zich mee dat de Nederlandse samenleving
vraagt om nieuwe samenwerkingsvormen en een nieuwe ordening van ruimte en
tijd.
Commissie
Dagindeling
Op
4 november 1996 stelde de minister van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid
de Commissie Dagindeling in. Opdracht was om voorstellen te
ontwikkelen voor een andere dagindeling
die mannen en vrouwen meer ruimte zou bieden om arbeid en zorg te
combineren. De commissie richtte zich met name op de
praktisch-organisatorische aspecten van het combinatiescenario.
In
eerste instantie werd vanuit de samenleving sceptisch gereageerd op het
begrip dagindeling. Maar toen de commissie in april 1998 haar eindrapport
uitbracht, stond het begrip dagindeling duidelijk op de maatschappelijke
en politieke agenda. Het was
voor velen duidelijk dat er gezamenlijke antwoorden gevonden moesten
worden op de knellende problemen die individuele taakcombineerders in
toenemende mate ondervonden. Uit een door de commissie ingesteld onderzoek
bleek dat in de tweede helft van de jaren negentig ruim 2 miljoen mannen
en vrouwen problemen ondervonden bij het combineren van betaald werk en
zorgtaken. Dit aantal stijgt snel.
Het
advies van de commissie richtte zich op een viertal gebieden:
§
een betere afstemming van
arbeidstijden en zorgtaken,
§
opvangvoorzieningen die
aansluiten op de vraag van taakcombineerders en hun kinderen
§
vraag en aanbod van
persoonlijke dienstverlening (dit zijn de voorzieningen waarvan mensen in
hun privé-leven gebruik maken zoals huishoudelijke hulp, wasserette,
bibliotheek, etc.)
§
voorzieningen op lokaal
niveau die de dagindeling van taakcombineerders ten goede komen.
Een
belangrijke aanbeveling van de commissie was dat dagindeling een
herkenbaar deel moest gaan uitmaken van het beleid gericht op de
combinatie van arbeid en zorg.
Stimuleringsmaatregel
Dagindeling
Als
reactie op het advies van de Commissie Dagindeling maakte het kabinet op
24 maart 1999 de Stimuleringsmaatregel
Dagindeling bekend. Het kabinet stelde een budget van 60 miljoen
gulden voor vier jaar beschikbaar voor experimenten, ervaringsuitwisseling
en informatievoorziening. Het gaat om vernieuwende experimenten die
aansluiten bij de wensen en behoeftes van mensen die arbeid en zorgtaken
combineren. Nadruk ligt op nieuwe vormen van samenwerking.
Het
Projectbureau Dagindeling is
opgericht om de stimuleringsmaatregel uit te voeren.
De
stimuleringsmaatregel heeft als doel het combineren van arbeid en zorg te
vergemakkelijken door middel van:
§
het verbeteren van de
afstemming van arbeidstijden met de openingstijden van onderwijs-,
kinderopvang- en vrijetijdsvoorzieningen, winkels en andere vormen van
dienstverlening.
§
Het verbeteren van de
bereikbaarheid van deze voorzieningen door middel van aanpassing van
ruimtelijke plannen en het ontwikkelen van vervoersarrangementen.
§
Het ontwikkelen van
nieuwe vormen van persoonlijke dienstverlening en zorgondernemerschap.
§
Het ontwikkelen van een
andere werk-privébalans in arbeidsorganisaties.
De
resultaten van de experimenten zullen beschikbaar komen en een bijdrage
leveren aan vernieuwing van beleid op diverse terreinen.
De
stimuleringsmaatregel is van het begin af aan een groot succes en trekt
brede belangstelling. Tot aan
de zomer 2000 zijn er 260 voorstellen voor experimenten ingediend en zijn
er 76 experimenten van start gegaan. Het is de verwachting dat er begin
2001 ongeveer 130 experimenten operationeel zullen zijn.
Stuurgroep
In
het kader van de Stimuleringsmaatregel dagindeling is ook een Stuurgroep
Dagindeling ingesteld met als opdracht een ambassadeursfunctie te
vervullen inzake dagindeling in de Nederlandse samenleving. Sleutelfiguren
uit het maatschappelijk leven maken deel uit van de Stuurgroep. Ook
adviseert de stuurgroep gevraagd en ongevraagd de staatssecretaris voor
emancipatiezaken.
Focusgroepen
Vertegenwoordigers
van de projecten ontmoeten elkaar regelmatig in zogenaamde Focusgroepen om ervaringen uit te wisselen en om met elkaar gerezen
problemen in experimenten op te lossen. Resultaten van speciaal uitgevoerd
onderzoek, visies van experts, conceptbeleidsvoorstellen etc. worden in
deze groepen besproken. Op die manier is i een vroeg stadium duidelijk
welke richting de resultaten van de experimenten opgaan. Door deze aanpak
wordt de implementatie van het dagindelingsbeleid al in een vroeg stadium
bevorderd.
Stuurgroep
en projectbureau organiseren regelmatig grotere bijeenkomsten, ideeëndagen,
conferenties, expertmeetings etc. om het onderwerp dagindeling breed op de
maatschappelijke agenda te plaatsen. Ook is er in het voorjaar 2000 een
overheidspubliekscampagne gestart rond het combineren van werk en privé.
In een televisie- en radiospot, ondersteund door een brochure, staat de knellende
agenda symbool voor het moderne leven van de taakcombineerder.
Geconstateerd
kan worden dat - na het succesvolle voorbereidende werk van de Commissie
Dagindeling - dagindeling mede door de stimuleringsmaatregel sterk in de
belangstelling staat. De voor Nederland vernieuwende wijze van beleid
maken middels een groot aantal over het hele land gespreide experimenten
lijkt sneller dan verwacht resultaten te gaan afwerpen. Dagindeling is
steeds meer een onderwerp op de maatschappelijke en politieke agenda en
maakt duidelijk hoe tot nu toe gescheiden beleidsterreinen nauw met elkaar
moeten samenwerken om adequate
oplossingen te bieden voor de problemen waar taakcombineerders voor
gesteld worden. Duidelijk wordt hoe belangrijk ontschotting
van beleid is.
Eerste
indicaties uit de experimenten dagindeling
Op
dit moment is het nog te vroeg om vooruit te lopen op de concrete
resultaten van de experimenten dagindeling. De resultaten zullen eind 2002
beschikbaar komen en systematisch geëvalueerd worden. Hiertoe is een
monitor ontwikkeld die gebruikt wordt om de resultaten van de experimenten
te analyseren en te verwerken.
Toch
zijn er reeds een aantal ontwikkelingen zichtbaar. Uit de eerste
inventarisatie van de experimenten en de discussies in de focusgroepen
komen een aantal cruciale thema's naar voren.
§
Ordening van ruimte.
De toenemende tijdsdruk van taakcombineerders hangt nauw samen met
ruimtelijke afstemming. Veel voorzieningen, zoals kinderopvang, scholen,
winkels, sportvelden, bibliotheken, medische voorzieningen etc. bevinden
zich op soms grote afstanden van elkaar, met name in het landelijk gebied.
Ouders die voor of na hun werk kinderen moeten brengen en halen,
boodschappen moeten doen, kinderen weer naar een sportclub moeten brengen
etc. ondervinden veel problemen door een ruimtelijke planning die niet
voldoende is afgestemd op de behoeften van taakcombineerders. Het
clusteren van voorzieningen op 'knooppunten' in buurten is daarom een
belangrijk aandachtspunt voor dagindeling. Hierdoor kan ook het zogenaamde
ketenvervoer teruggedrongen worden. Van
belang is hoe dagindeling een rol gaat spelen in ruimtelijke plannen van
de overheid en hoe de bestaande regelgeving hier op aangepast kan worden.
De eerste indicaties uit experimenten rond dagindeling en ruimtelijke orde
gaan waarschijnlijk op de valreep nog een rol spelen bij het tot stand
komen van de belangrijke Vijfde nota
ruimtelijke ordening van het kabinet die in het najaar 2000 zal
verschijnen.
§
Ordening van tijd.
Werktijden en openingstijden van voorzieningen zijn onvoldoende op elkaar
afgestemd. Werktijden worden in toenemende mate flexibel en aangepast aan
de behoeften van werknemers die arbeid en zorg combineren. Dit brengt met
zich mee dat, mede op basis van de desbetreffende experimenten,
gekeken moet worden naar verruiming of aanpassing van
openingstijden van voorzieningen en van maatschappelijke instellingen als
bibliotheken, overheidsdiensten, medische voorzieningen etc. Veel
taakcombineerders ondervinden op dit punt problemen. Uit een onderzoek
blijkt bijvoorbeeld dat slechts 3% van de artsen en specialisten
spreekuren houdt op de avond of in het weekeinde om zo tegemoet te komen
aan de problemen die hun patiënten hebben om werktijden af te stemmen op
spreekuurtijden. Een grote meerderheid van patiënten die arbeid en zorg
combineren, hebben juist behoefte aan deze spreekuurtijden in de avond of
tijdens het weekeinde.
§
Werk en privébalans
in arbeidsorganisaties. In verschillende experimenten wordt ervaring opgedaan met
arbeidstijdenmanagement als instrument om werknemers in staat te stellen
arbeid en zorg op een bevredigende manier te kunnen laten combineren. Van
belang is een cultuurverandering in arbeidsorganisaties ten aanzien van
'werken en leven'. Te weinig wordt er aandacht besteed aan de verhouding
tussen werk en privé. Enerzijds gaat het hierbij dus om een
cultuurverandering in arbeidsorganisaties, anderzijds om het
experimenteren met concrete maatregelen zoals tijd- en plaatsonafhankelijk
werken. Een instrument dat hierbij een rol kan spelen, is het Bereikbaarheidsscenario.
Dit door de overheid in de loop van 2000 opgestelde scenario biedt een
reeks suggesties om flexibeler met arbeidstijden om te gaan.
§
Samenwerking van
voorzieningen. Een groot
deel van de experimenten dagindeling richt zich op een samenhangend aanbod
van voorzieningen, waarbij veelal sprake is van verruiming van
openingstijden, op dagarrangementen voor kinderen en ouders,
en van combinaties met persoonlijke dienstverlening. Hierbij wordt
aangesloten bij de ontwikkeling van de Brede
School in Nederland.
In
december 1999 bracht de Stuurgroep Dagindeling het advies “4+2=7”
uit waarin gepleit wordt voor een samenhangend aanbod van onderwijs,
opvang en vrijetijdsvoorzieningen in één gebouw, onder één regie, open
gedurende zes dagen in de week van 8 uur ‘s ochtends tot 6 uur ‘s
avonds (en indien mogelijk tot 8 uur ‘s avonds). Het multifunctioneel
gebruik van gebouwen en ruimtes speelt hierbij een belangrijke rol. Om
deze samenwerking van voorzieningen effectief te laten zijn, zijn nieuwe
bestuurlijke samenwerkingsvormen, beheers- en exploitatiemodellen nodig.
Centraal
staat ook een flexibele vorm van opvang met een duidelijke samenhang
tussen voor-, tussen- en naschoolse opvang. Van belang is dat dit
samenhangende aanbod van voorzieningen toegankelijk blijft voor iedereen,
ook bijvoorbeeld voor de alleenstaande taakcombineerder met een minimum
inkomen.
§
Persoonlijke
dienstverlening. De
ontwikkelingen rond persoonlijke dienstverlening lijken sneller te gaan
dan bij de start van de stimuleringsmaatregel was voorzien. De markt heeft
in hoog tempo een aantal initiatieven genomen. Toegankelijkheid en
betaalbaarheid blijven echter een belangrijk vraagstuk.
Focuspunten
in experimenten zijn de ontwikkeling van persoonlijke dienstverlening tot
een nieuwe bedrijfstak, met eigen opleidingen en duidelijke
randvoorwaarden. Ook het aanbieden van diensten in combinatie met
bijvoorbeeld voorzieningen als kinderopvang of bedrijven (employee-benefits)
is een focuspunt.
§
Lokaal sociaal beleid.
Hierbij staat de samenhang tussen de sociale cohesie van buurten en
dagindelingsarrangementen met name voor laag betaalden en allochtonen
centraal. Hoe kunnen formele en informele netwerken optimaal benut worden
als het gaat om het afstemmen van arbeid en zorg? Hoe is
de positie van de vrijwilliger in deze processen?
§
Landelijk gebied. Mensen
die taken combineren en in het landelijk gebied wonen of werken, worden
door de grotere spreiding van voorzieningen en grotere afstanden met nog
meer problemen geconfronteerd dan taakcombineerders in stedelijke
gebieden. Voor een vitaal en leefbaar platteland is van belang welk
voorzieningenniveau en welke vervoersarrangementen minmaal noodzakelijk
zijn om arbeid en zorg te combineren. In de verschillende projecten
dagindeling wordt onder meer geëxperimenteerd met een integratie van
vervoersregelingen, zowel publiek als privaat ( in elkaar schuiven van
regulier openbaar vervoer en vervoersregelingen voor scholieren,
gehandicapten en ouderen). In een aantal experimenten staan nieuwe vormen
van kleinschalige exploitatiemodellen voor het voorzieningenniveau
centraal. Hoe kunnen in dorpshuizen centra voor arbeid en zorg komen, hoe
kan bijvoorbeeld via een franchiseformule kinderopvang op het platteland
kleinschalig en betaalbaar aangeboden worden?
De
Stimuleringsmaatregel Dagindeling eindigt op 31 december 2002. De
verwachting is dat het onderwerp dagindeling op dat moment, mede door de
brede verspreiding van de resultaten
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